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Executive Yuan (Cabinet)

1. The Executive Yuan in the Republic of China (Taiwan)
• Different layers of government
• Departments in the Executive Yuan
• Other committees and organizations under the Executive Yuan
• The Executive Yuan Council
2. Leadership of the ROC Executive Yuan
• ROC Premiers/Vice Premiers—pre-constitutional period [1928-1948]
• ROC Premiers/Vice Premiers—constitutional period [since 1948]
• Secretary-generals of the Executive Yuan
• Spokespersons of the Executive Yuan
3. Past and present Ministers without Portfolio in the Executive Yuan
• Wang Wen-ho cabinet (took office on May 31, 1948)
• Sun Fo cabinet (took office on Dec. 22, 1948)
• Ho Ying-chin cabinet (took office on March 21, 1949)
• Yen Hsi-shan cabinet (took office on June 12, 1949)
• First Chen Cheng cabinet (took office on March 12, 1950)
• O. K. Yui cabinet (took office on June 1, 1954)
• Second Chen Cheng cabinet (took office on July 15, 1958)
• Yen Chia-kan cabinet (took office on Dec. 16, 1963)
• Chiang Ching-kuo cabinet (took office on June 1, 1972)
• Sun Yun-suan cabinet (took office on June 1, 1978)
• Yu Kuo-hwa cabinet (took office on June 1, 1984)
• Lee Huan cabinet (took office on June 1, 1989)
• Hao Pei-tsun cabinet (took office on June 1, 1990)
• Lien Chan cabinet (took office on Feb. 27, 1993)
• Reshuffled Lien Chan cabinet (took office on Feb. 28, 1996)
• Vincent Siew cabinet (took office on Sept. 1, 1997)
• Reshuffled Vincent Siew cabinet (took office on Jan. 27, 1999)
• Frank Tang cabinet (took office on May 20, 2000)
• First Chang Chun-hsiung cabinet (took office on Oct. 6, 2000)
• First Yu Shyi-kun cabinet (took office on Feb. 1, 2002)
• Second Yu Shyi-kun cabinet (took office on May 20, 2004)
• Frank Hsieh cabinet (took office on Feb. 1, 2005)
• Su Tseng-chang cabinet (took office on Jan. 25, 2006)
• Second Chang Chun-hsiung cabinet (took office on May 21, 2007)
• Liu Chao-shiuan cabinet (took office on May 20, 2008)
• Wu Den-yih cabinet (took office on Sept. 10, 2009)
• Sean C. Chen cabinet (took office on Feb. 6, 2012)
• Chiang Yi-huah cabinet (took office on Feb. 18, 2013)
• Mao Chi-kuo cabinet (took office on Dec. 8, 2014)
• Simon Chang San-cheng cabinet (took office on Feb. 1, 2016)
• Lin Chuan cabinet (took office on May 20, 2016)
• William Lai Ching-te cabinet (took office on Sept. 8, 2017)
• Second Su Tseng-chang cabinet (took office on Jan. 14, 2019)
• Chen Chien-jen cabinet (took office on Jan. 31, 2023)
• Cho Jung-tai cabinet (incumbent; took office on May 20, 2024)
4. History of the ROC Executive Yuan
• Founding of the Executive Yuan in 1928
• Early development until the end of WWII
• Unsteady years: The Chinese Civil War and its aftermath
• New cabinet-level agencies established between 1954 and 2006
• 2012–2014 Restructuring of the Executive Yuan
5. A few remarks about the ROC before 1928
• The Xinhai Revolution
• The ROC central government 1912-1916
• List of ROC cabinets before Yuan Shikai's death
• ROC cabinet members before Yuan Shikai's death
• Beiyang government premiers and FMs 1916–1928

Note: This page provides a general introduction of the Executive Yuan, its structure and leadership, history, and lists all ministers without portfolio since 1948. For details about the ministries and cabinet agencies under the ROC Executive Yuan, please refer to the page Ministries and cabinet agencies of this website. Information and data about semi-official organizations, agencies involved in handling cross-Strait relations, state-owned enterprises and the ROC military are presented on the page Other central government agencies.

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◆ The Executive Yuan in the Republic of China (Taiwan)

• Different layers of government
• Departments in the Executive Yuan
• Other committees and organizations under the Executive Yuan
• The Executive Yuan Council

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✉ ROC Executive Yuan 行政院
No. 1 Zhongxiao East Road Sec. 1, Zhongzheng District, Taipei City 10058, Taiwan ROC [10058 台北市中正區忠孝東路 1 段 1 號] ———————————— 🌏 Executive Yuan – Web link
Older logo (before July 2014)

The Executive Yuan, formally established on Oct. 25, 1928, is the authoritative body of the ROC central government tasked with implementing the policies devised by the ROC president. The president also appoints the head of the Executive Yuan (xingzhengyuan yuanzhang 行政院院長), a position which in English is often referred to as "Premier". A shorter Chinese term for Premier often used in media reports is kui 揆 or gekui 閣揆; accordingly, the vice premier can also be referred to in Chinese as fukui 副揆 or fugekui 副閣揆.

The functions, structure and leadership of today's Executive Yuan are introduced in the paragraphs directly below, the history and development since its founding are outlined further below (click here). The chapter at the bottom of this page provides a depiction of the ROC central government between the founding of the ROC in 1912 and the establishment of the Executive Yuan (click here).

The site of the Executive Yuan was designated a "historical site of injustice" (buyi yizhi 不義遺址) on Feb. 26, 2024 to commemorate the victims killed during the 228 Incident of 1947.

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Different layers of government

Official ROC publications explaining the Executive Yuan often refer to so-called "cabinet-level agencies". On the top of the ROC's central government level, three categories of agencies can be formally distinguished:
 ◉ level 1 central agencies (zhongyang yiji jiguan 中央一級機關),
 ◉ level 2 central agencies (zhongyang erji jiguan 中央二級機關), and
 ◉ level 3 central agencies (zhongyang sanji jiguan 中央三級機關).
The first category applies to the highest government layer and comprises the Presidential Office, the National Security Council and the Five Yuan. The second level includes what is usually dubbed "cabinet-level agencies" in English, i. e. organizations subordinate to level 1 central agencies. The third category consists of sub-organizations of the second category, e. g. distinct agencies inside a ministry like the Bureau of Consular Affairs (waijiaobu lingshi shiwuju 外交部領事事務局, abbrev. BOCA) et al. in the MOFA or the Tourism Administration (jiaotongbu guan'guangshu 交通部觀光署) in the MOTC.

The ROC Executive Yuan comprises internal departments, affiliated committees and organizations, and the Executive Yuan Council (= the cabinet). The leadership of the Executive Yuan consists of the premier, other senior positions are the vice premier, the secretary-general, the spokesperson as well as the ministers without portfolio.

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Departments in the Executive Yuan

The official website of the Executive Yuan contains charts explaining its internal organizational structure. The departments within the Executive Yuan are subdivided into three categories:
 ◉ business units (yewu danwei 業務單位),
 ◉ auxiliary units (fuzhu danwei輔助單位), and
 ◉ permanent task groups (changshexing renwu bianzu 常設性任務編組).

Business units

▶ Department of Coordination and Planning (zonghe yewuchu 綜合業務處)
▶ Department of the Interior, Health and Welfare, and Labor (neizheng weifu laodongchu 內政衛福勞動處)
▶ Department of Foreign Affairs, National Defense and Justice (waijiao guofang fawuchu 外交國防法務處)
▶ Department of Transportation, Environment and Natural Resources (jiaotong huanjing ziyuanchu 交通環境資源處)
▶ Department of Fiscal, Statistical and Financial Affairs (caizheng zhuji jinrongchu 財政主計金融處)
▶ Department of Economics, Energy and Agriculture (jingji nengyuan nongyechu 經濟能源農業處)
▶ Department of Education, Science and Culture (jiaoyu kexue wenhuachu 教育科學文化處)
▶ Department of Consumer Protection (xiaofeizhe baohuchu 消費者保護處)
▶ Department of Gender Equality (xingbie pingdengchu 性別平等處)
▶ Department of Information Services (xinwen chuanbochu 新聞傳播處)
▶ Department of Cyber Security (zitong anquanchu 資通安全處, abbrev. zianchu 資安處)
▶ Department of Human Rights and Transitional Justice (renquan ji zhuanxing zhengyichu 人權及轉型正義處)
▶ Office of Homeland Security (guotu anquan bangongshi 國土安全辦公室), established on Aug. 31, 2007 as successor to the Counterterrorism Office (fan kongbu xingdong guankong bangongshi 反恐怖行動管控辦公室)
▶ Office of Disaster Management (zaihai fangjiu bangongshi 災害防救辦公室)
▶ Legal Affairs Committee (faguihui 法規會)

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Auxiliary units

▶ Department of Public Relations (gonggong guanxichu 公共關係處)
▶ Secretariat (mishuchu 秘書處)
▶ Department of Personnel (renshichu 人事處)
▶ Department of Civil Service Ethics (zhengfengchu 政風處)
▶ Department of Accounting and Statistics (zhujichu 主計處)
▶ Department of Information Management (zixunchu 資訊處)

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Permanent task groups

▶ Office of Science and Technology (keji huibao bangongshi 科技會報辦公室)
▶ Office of Food Safety/OFS [more details see further below under FOOD SAFETY]
▶ Central Taiwan Joint Services Center (zhongbu lianhe fuwu zhongxin 中部聯合服務中心)
▶ Southern Taiwan Joint Services Center (nanbu lianhe fuwu zhongxin 南部聯合服務中心)
▶ Eastern Taiwan Joint Services Center (dongbu lianhe fuwu zhongxin 東部聯合服務中心)
▶ Yunlin-Chiayi-Tainan Joint Services Center (Yun Jia Nan qu lianhe fuwu zhongxin 雲嘉南區聯合服務中心)

Seven more new agencies under the Executive Yuan were added by the Tsai Ing-wen administration:

▶ Energy and Carbon Emission Reductions Office (nengyuan jiantan bangongshi 能源減碳辦公室), first convened on Aug. 16, 2016
▶ Ill-gotten Party Assets Settlement Committee (budang dangchan chuli weiyuanhui 不當黨產處理委員會, abbrev. dangchanhui黨產會 in Chinese and CIPAS in English), established on Aug. 31, 2016
▶ Office of Trade Negotiations (xingzhengyuan jingmao tanpan bangongshi 行政院經貿談判辦公室, abbrev. OTN), established on Sept. 20, 2016
▶ Kinmen-Matsu Joint Services Center (xingzhengyuan Jin Ma lianhe fuwu zhongxin 行政院金馬聯合服務中心), established on Jan. 17, 2017
▶ Anti-Money Laundering Office (xingzhengyuan xiqian fangzhi bangongshi 行政院洗錢防制辦公室, abbrev. AMLO), established on March 16, 2017
▶ Transitional Justice Commission (cujin zhuanxing zhengyi weiyuanhui 促進轉型正義委員會, abbrev. cuzhuanhui 促轉會 in Chinese and TJC in English), formally set up on May 31, 2018 and abolished on May 31, 2022
▶ Anti-Fraud Office (dazha bangongshi 打詐辦公室), established on May 31, 2023

Another new body was added by the Lai Ching-te administration:

▶ Economic Development Commission (jingji fazhan weiyuanhui 經濟發展委員會), announced on July 17, 2024, convened for its first meeting the following day

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Other committees and organizations under the Executive Yuan

In addition to the entities listed above, there are several organizations which include committees / commissions (weiyuanhui 委員會), small groups (xiaozu 小組), boards (huibao 會報) and others.

✿ Committees / commissions (weiyuanhui 委員會):
▶ Central Integrity Committee (zhongyang lianzheng weiyuanhui 中央廉政委員會),
▶ Commission for Social Welfare Advancement (xingzhengyuan shehui fuli tuidong weiyuanhui 行政院社會福利推動委員會),
▶ Legal Affairs Committee (xingzhengyuan fagui weiyuanhui 行政院法規委員會),
▶ Petitions and Appeals Committee (xingzhengyuan suyuan shenyi weiyuanhui 行政院訴願審議委員會, abbrev. sushenhui 訴審會),
▶ Referendum Review Committee (xingzhengyuan gongtou shenyi weiyuanhui 行政院公投審議委員會 or xingzhengyuan gongmin toupiao shenyi weiyuanhui 行政院公民投票審議委員會, abbrev. gongshenhui 公審會 in Chinese and RRC in English), and
▶ Sustainable Development Committee (xingzhengyuan guojia yongxu fazhan weiyuanhui 行政院國家永續發展委員會).

✿ Small groups (xiaozu 小組):
▶ Human Rights Task Force (xingzhengyuan renquan baozhang tuidong xiaozu 行政院人權保障推動小組),
▶ International Living Environment Promotion Committee (xingzhengyuan yingzao guoji shenghuo huanjing tuidong xiaozu 行政院營造國際生活環境推動小組),
▶ National Information and Communications Initiative Committee (xingzhengyuan guojia zixun tongxin fazhan tuidong xiaozu 行政院國家資訊通信發展推動小組, abbrev. NICI), and
▶ Task Force for Maritime Affairs (xingzhengyuan haiyang shiwu tuidong xiaozu 行政院海洋事務推動小組).

✿ Boards (huibao 會報):
▶ National Information and Communications Security Taskforce (xingzhengyuan guojia zitong anquan huibao 行政院國家資通安全會報, abbrev. NICST) and its subordinate National Center for Cyber Security Technology (guojia zitong anquan huibao jishu fuwu zhongxin 國家資通安全會報技術服務中心, abbrev. NCCST), and
▶ New Immigrants Affairs Coordination Task Force (xingzhengyuan xinzhumin shiwu xietiao huibao 行政院新住民事務協調會報).

✿ Others:
▶ Consumer Protection Committee (xiaofeizhe baohuhui 消費者保護會),
▶ Gender Equality Committee (xingzhengyuan xingbie pingdenghui 行政院性別平等會, abbrev. GEC),
▶ Indigenous Peoples Basic Law Promotion Committee (xingzhengyuan yuanzhu minzu jibenfa tuidonghui 原住民族基本法推動會), and
▶ National Development Fund, Executive Yuan (xingzhengyuan guojia fazhan jijin guanlihui 行政院國家發展基金管理會, abbrev. guofa jijin 國發基金 in Chinese and NDF in English).

Disaster prevention—The original National Disaster Prevention and Protection Commission (xingzhengyuan zaihai fangjiu weiyuanhui 行政院災害防救委員會, abbrev. NDPPC) was transformed into the Central Disaster Prevention and Response Council (zhongyang zaihai fangjiu huibao 中央災害防救會報, abbrev. CDPRC) which maintains close contact and coordinates with other relevant organizations in the sector—the National Rescue Command Center (xingzhengyuan guojia soujiu zhihui zhongxin 行政院國家搜救指揮中心), the Disaster Prevention and Protection Experts Consultation Committee (xingzhengyuan zaihai fangjiu zhuanjia zixun weiyuanhui 行政院災害防救專家諮詢委員會), the Central Disaster Prevention and Protection Commission (zhongyang zaihai fangjiu weiyuanhui 中央災害防救委員會), and the Central Emergency Operation Center (zhongyang zaihai yingbian zhongxin 中央災害應變中心, abbrev. CEOC) under the MOI NFA.

Food safety—On June 1, 2009 the Board of Food Safety (xingzhengyuan shipin anquan huibao 行政院食品安全會報) under the ROC Executive Yuan was formally established, and it was restructured as Board of Food and Medicine Safety (xingzhengyuan shipin yaopin anquan huibao 行政院食品藥品安全會報) in September 2013. The Executive Yuan announced the establishment of a Food Safety Task Force (shipin anquan tuidong gongzuo xiaozu 食品安全推動工作小組) under the Board of Food and Medicine Safety on July 8, 2014. That agency was upgraded to Office of Food Safety (shipin anquan bangongshi 食品安全辦公室, abbrev. shian bangongshi 食安辦公室 or shian ban 食安辦 in Chinese and OFS in English) on Oct. 22, 2014.

Another organization worth mentioning is the Nuclear-Free Homeland Commission of the ROC Executive Yuan (xingzhengyuan feihe jiayuan tuidong weiyuanhui 行政院非核家園推動委員會), also called "Council for Nuclear Free Homeland" in English. It was established by the DPP-led government and convened for its first meeting on Sept. 13, 2002, but it appears to have become inactive after the KMT's return to power in 2008. Furthermore, a Military Injustice Petitions Committee (xingzhengyuan junshi yuanan shensu weiyuanhui 行政院軍事冤案申訴委員會), established on Aug. 29, 2013 under the Executive Yuan, was disbanded on Aug. 28, 2014.

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The Executive Yuan Council

The chief policymaking organ of the ROC government is the Executive Yuan Council (xingzhengyuan huiyi 行政院會議). It is also commonly referred to as "cabinet" (neige 內閣), although that is not an official term. According to regulations provided by Article 58 of the ROC Constitution (Zhonghua minguo xianfa 中華民國憲法), Article 11 in the Organizational Act of the Executive Yuan (xingzhengyuan zuzhifa 行政院組織法), and Articles 2 and 14 in the Rules of Procedure of the Executive Yuan (xingzhengyuan huiyi yishi guize 行政院會議議事規則), the Executive Yuan Council consists of the premier (xingzhengyuan yuanzhang 行政院院長), vice premier (xingzhengyuan fuyuanzhang 行政院副院長), the ministers without portfolio (zhengwu weiyuan 政務委員), and the heads of all cabinet-level agencies (ge buhui shouzhang 各部會首長). The premier may invite or appoint any relevant person to attend the Executive Yuan meetings.

The table below shows the current members of the Executive Yuan Council.

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◆ Leadership of the ROC Executive Yuan

• ROC Premiers/Vice Premiers—pre-constitutional period [1928-1948]
• ROC Premiers/Vice Premiers—constitutional period [since 1948]
• Secretary-generals of the Executive Yuan
• Spokespersons of the Executive Yuan

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ROC Premiers/Vice Premiers—pre-constitutional period [1928-1948]

The period between 1928 and 1948 is sometimes referred to as the "period of political tutelage" (xunzheng shiqi 訓政時期).

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ROC Premiers/Vice Premiers—constitutional period [since 1948]

For official portraits of ROC premiers since 1987 click here.

Note: Since the establishment of the Executive Yuan in 1928, it has so far never had a female president. There have been female vice premiers though, all in administrations under the leadership of the DPP—Yeh Chu-lan 2004/2005, Tsai Ing-wen 2006/2007, and now Cheng Li-chiun, incumbent since 2024. (More information about women in top positions of the ROC government can be found here).

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Official residences

The official residence of the ROC premier in Taipei's Jinhua Street—previously the house last lived in by General Peng Meng-chi 彭孟緝 until his death in 1997—was returned to the MOF's National Property Administration (caizhengbu guoyou caichanju 財政部國有財產局, abbrev. NPA) in November 2013 for asset revitalization after standing empty for five years. According to Taiwanese media reports, ROC premiers then used the official residence of the ROC vice premier, although Mao Chi-kuo 毛治國 kept using his private residence near the south side of Daan Forest Park (daan senlin gongyuan 大安森林公園) in Taipei City during his term as head of the ROC Executive Yuan. The former official residence of the ROC premier was transformed into the Start-up Hub of the Executive Yuan (xingzhengyuan qingchuang jidi 行政院青創基地) in March 2015 but became the official residence of the ROC premier again in June 2017; the Start-up Hub of the Executive Yuan is now housed in the Social Innovation Lab (shehui chuangxin shiyan zhongxin 社會創新實驗中心) which was founded by the MOEA SMEA in 2017.

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Official portraits of ROC premiers since 1987

Yu Kuo-hwa (6/1984—6/1989)	Lee Huan (6/1989—6/1990)	Hao Pei-tsun (6/1990—2/1993)	Lien Chan (2/1993—9/1997)
Vincent Siew (9/1997—5/2000)	Frank Tang (5/2000—10/2000)	Chang Chun-hsiung (10/2000—2/2002; 5/2007—5/2008)	Yu Shyi-kun (2/2002—2/2005)
Frank Hsieh (2/2005—1/2006)	Su Tseng-chang (1/2006—5/2007)	Liu Chao-shiuan (5/2008—9/2009)	Wu Den-yih (9/2009—2/2012)
Sean C. Chen (2/2012—2/2013)	Jiang Yi-huah (2/2013—12/2014)	Mao Chi-kuo (12/2014—2/2016)	Simon Chang San-cheng (2/2016—5/2016)
Lin Chuan (5/2016—9/2017)	William Lai Ching-te (9/2017—1/2019)	Su Tseng-chang (1/2019—1/2023)	Chen Chien-jen (1/2023—5/2024)
Cho Jung-tai (5/2024—)	The official portraits shown here are based on images provided by the ROC Executive Yuan. Click on the thumbnail image to enlarge. (Copyright © Executive Yuan)

Please note that Chang Chun-hsiung served as premier twice under the same president, hence the same portrait is used. Su Tseng-chang served as premier twice as well but under different presidents—the first time under Chen Shui-bian, the second time under Tsai Ing-wen, so different official portraits are shown here.

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Secretary-generals of the Executive Yuan

The official Chinese title of the Executive Yuan's secretary-general is xingzhengyuan mishuzhang 行政院秘書長.

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Spokespersons of the Executive Yuan

When the Government Information Office (xingzhengyuan xinwenju 行政院新聞局, abbrev. GIO)—whose head had also performed the function of government spokesperson—was abolished on May 20, 2012, the new position of spokesperson of the Executive Yuan (xingzhengyuan fayanren 行政院發言人) was created.

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◆ Past and present Ministers without Portfolio in the Executive Yuan

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Since 1948, the ROC cabinet (neige 內閣) usually included between five and nine ministers without portfolio (zhengwu weiyuan 政務委員); a position sometimes also called "minister of state" in English. An arrow [↪] in the lists below indicates that the minister without portfolio in the line directly above the arrow was replaced by the official following the arrow.

• Wang Wen-ho cabinet (took office on May 31, 1948)
• Sun Fo cabinet (took office on Dec. 22, 1948)
• Ho Ying-chin cabinet (took office on March 21, 1949)
• Yen Hsi-shan cabinet (took office on June 12, 1949)
• First Chen Cheng cabinet (took office on March 12, 1950)
• O. K. Yui cabinet (took office on June 1, 1954)
• Second Chen Cheng cabinet (took office on July 15, 1958)
• Yen Chia-kan cabinet (took office on Dec. 16, 1963)
• Chiang Ching-kuo cabinet (took office on June 1, 1972)
• Sun Yun-suan cabinet (took office on June 1, 1978)
• Yu Kuo-hwa cabinet (took office on June 1, 1984)
• Lee Huan cabinet (took office on June 1, 1989)
• Hao Pei-tsun cabinet (took office on June 1, 1990)
• Lien Chan cabinet (took office on Feb. 27, 1993)
• Reshuffled Lien Chan cabinet (took office on Feb. 28, 1996)
• Vincent Siew cabinet (took office on Sept. 1, 1997)
• Reshuffled Vincent Siew cabinet (took office on Jan. 27, 1999)
• Frank Tang cabinet (took office on May 20, 2000)
• First Chang Chun-hsiung cabinet (took office on Oct. 6, 2000)
• First Yu Shyi-kun cabinet (took office on Feb. 1, 2002)
• Second Yu Shyi-kun cabinet (took office on May 20, 2004)
• Frank Hsieh cabinet (took office on Feb. 1, 2005)
• Su Tseng-chang cabinet (took office on Jan. 25, 2006)
• Second Chang Chun-hsiung cabinet (took office on May 21, 2007)
• Liu Chao-shiuan cabinet (took office on May 20, 2008)
• Wu Den-yih cabinet (took office on Sept. 10, 2009)
• Sean C. Chen cabinet (took office on Feb. 6, 2012)
• Chiang Yi-huah cabinet (took office on Feb. 18, 2013)
• Mao Chi-kuo cabinet (took office on Dec. 8, 2014)
• Simon Chang San-cheng cabinet (took office on Feb. 1, 2016)
• Lin Chuan cabinet (took office on May 20, 2016)
• William Lai Ching-te cabinet (took office on Sept. 8, 2017)
• Second Su Tseng-chang cabinet (took office on Jan. 14, 2019)
• Chen Chien-jen cabinet (took office on Jan. 31, 2023)
• Cho Jung-tai cabinet (incumbent; took office on May 20, 2024)

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Wang Wen-ho cabinet (took office on May 31, 1948)

Term in Chinese: Weng Wenhao neige 翁文灝內閣

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Sun Fo cabinet (took office on Dec. 22, 1948)

Term in Chinese: Sun Ke neige 孫科內閣

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Ho Ying-chin cabinet (took office on March 21, 1949)

Term in Chinese: He Yingqin neige 何應欽內閣

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Yen Hsi-shan cabinet (took office on June 12, 1949)

Term in Chinese: Yan Xishan neige 閻錫山內閣

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First Chen Cheng cabinet (took office on March 12, 1950)

Term in Chinese: diyici Chen Cheng neige 第一次陳誠內閣

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O. K. Yui cabinet ( took office on June 1, 1954)

Term in Chinese: Yu Hongjun neige 俞鴻鈞內閣

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Second Chen Cheng cabinet (took office on July 15, 1958)

Term in Chinese: dierci Chen Cheng neige 第二次陳誠內閣

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Yen Chia-kan cabinet (took office on Dec. 16, 1963)

Term in Chinese: Yan Jiagan neige 嚴家淦內閣

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Chiang Ching-kuo cabinet (took office on June 1, 1972)

Term in Chinese: Jiang Jingguo neige 蔣經國內閣

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Sun Yun-suan cabinet (took office on June 1, 1978)

Term in Chinese: Sun Yunxuan neige 孫運璿內閣

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Yu Kuo-hwa cabinet (took office on June 1, 1984)

Term in Chinese: Yu Guohua neige 俞國華內閣

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Lee Huan cabinet (took office on June 1, 1989)

Term in Chinese: Li Huan neige 李煥內閣

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Hao Pei-tsun cabinet (took office on June 1, 1990)

Term in Chinese: Hao Bocun neige 郝柏村內閣

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Lien Chan cabinet (took office on Feb. 27, 1993)

Term in Chinese: Lian Zhan neige 連戰內閣

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Reshuffled Lien Chan cabinet (took office on Feb. 28, 1996)

Term in Chinese: Lian Zhan neige (gaizu hou) 連戰內閣（ 改組後）

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Vincent Siew cabinet (took office on Sept. 1, 1997)

Term in Chinese: Xiao Wanchang neige 蕭萬長內閣

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Reshuffled Vincent Siew cabinet (took office on Jan. 27, 1999)

Term in Chinese: Xiao Wanchang neige (gaizu hou) 蕭萬長內閣（ 改組後）

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Frank Tang cabinet (took office on May 20, 2000)

Term in Chinese: Tang Fei neige 唐飛內閣

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First Chang Chun-hsiung cabinet (took office on Oct. 6, 2000)

Term in Chinese: diyici Zhang Junxiong neige 第一次張俊雄內閣

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First Yu Shyi-kun cabinet (took office on Feb. 1, 2002)

Term in Chinese: diyici You Xikun neige 第一次游錫堃內閣

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Second Yu Shyi-kun cabinet (took office on May 20, 2004)

Term in Chinese: dierci You Xikun neige 第二次游錫堃內閣

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Frank Hsieh cabinet (took office on Feb. 1, 2005)

Term in Chinese: Xie Changting neige 謝長廷內閣

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Su Tseng-chang cabinet (took office on Jan. 25, 2006)

Term in Chinese: Su Zhenchang neige 蘇貞昌內閣

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Second Chang Chun-hsiung cabinet (took office on May 21, 2007)

Term in Chinese: dierci Zhang Junxiong neige 第二次張俊雄內閣

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Liu Chao-shiuan cabinet (took office on May 20, 2008)

Term in Chinese: Liu Zhaoxuan neige 劉兆玄內閣

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Wu Den-yih cabinet (took office on Sept. 10, 2009)

Term in Chinese: Wu Dunyi neige 吳敦義內閣

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Sean C. Chen cabinet (took office on Feb. 6, 2012)

Term in Chinese: Chen Chong neige 陳冲內閣

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Chiang Yi-huah cabinet (took office on Feb. 18, 2013)

Term in Chinese: Jiang Yihua neige 江宜樺內閣

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Mao Chi-kuo cabinet (took office on Dec. 8, 2014)

Term in Chinese: Mao Zhiguo neige 毛治國內閣

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Simon Chang San-cheng cabinet (took office on Feb. 1, 2016)

Term in Chinese: Zhang Shanzheng neige 張善政內閣

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Lin Chuan cabinet (took office on May 20, 2016)

Term in Chinese: Lin Quan neige 林全內閣

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William Lai Ching-te cabinet (took office on Sept. 8, 2017)

Term in Chinese: Lai Qingde neige 賴清德內閣

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Second Su Tseng-chang cabinet (took office on Jan. 14, 2019)

Term in Chinese: Dierci Su Zhenchang neige 第二次蘇貞昌內閣

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Chen Chien-jen cabinet (took office on Jan. 31, 2023)

Term in Chinese: Chen Jianren neige 陳建仁內閣

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Cho Jung-tai cabinet (incumbent; took office on May 20, 2024)

Term in Chinese: Chen Jianren neige 陳建仁內閣

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◆ History of the ROC Executive Yuan

• Founding of the Executive Yuan in 1928
• Early development until the end of WWII
• Unsteady years: The Chinese Civil War and its aftermath
• New cabinet-level agencies established between 1954 and 2006
• 2012–2014 Restructuring of the Executive Yuan

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Founding of the Executive Yuan in 1928

The Executive Yuan (xingzhengyuan 行政院) was established on Oct. 25, 1928, and since then the ROC central government has been reorganized several times. Typically, restructuring of the central government involves not only the creation of new agencies and the abolition of existing ones but also changes and shifts concerning departments under specific agencies and modification of their responsibilities. The ROC has seen several rounds of government restructuring, especially in the troubled decade following the end of WWII.

Initially, the ROC central government in Nanjing comprised 10 ministries:
▶ Ministry of Interior (neizhengbu 內政部, abbrev. MOI),
▶ Ministry of Foreign Affairs (waijiaobu 外交部, abbrev. MOFA),
▶ Ministry of War (junzhengbu 軍政部),
▶ Ministry of Finance (caizhengbu 財政部, abbrev. MOF),
▶ Ministry of Farming and Mining (nongkuangbu 農礦部) aka Ministry of Agriculture and Mines,
▶ Ministry of Commerce (gongshangbu 工商部) aka Ministry of Industry and Commerce,
▶ Ministry of Education (jiaoyubu 教育部, abbrev. MOE),
▶ Ministry of Communications (jiaotongbu 交通部),
▶ Ministry of Railways (tiedaobu 鐵道部), and
▶ Ministry of Health (weishengbu 衛生部).

TITLES—In English, the title of the President of the ROC Executive Yuan (xingzhengyuan yuanzhang 行政院院長) is usually translated as "premier", and the title of the Vice President of the Executive Yuan (xingzhengyuan fuyuanzhang 行政院副院長) as "vice premier". In written language, Taiwanese media often use the ancient title "prime minister" (kui 揆) for reports about the ROC premier. The heads of all ministries under the Executive Yuan use the title "minister" (buzhang 部長). Those ministers, the heads of the other agencies under the Executive Yuan, and the Ministers without Portfolio (zhengwu weiyuan 政務委員) are also referred to as "cabinet" (neige 內閣). The title zhuren weiyuan 主任委員 (mostly used by heads of commissions or councils) is often abbreviated as zhuwei 主委.

TOP   HOME    [◆ Executive Yuan history]   [Founding in 1928]

Early development until the end of WWII

Most of the original ten ministries were retained in later restructurings, with the following exceptions:

• The Ministry of Farming and Mining was merged in 1931 with the Ministry of Commerce, constituting the new Ministry of Basic Industries (shiyebu 實業部) aka Ministry of Enterprises, which in turn became the Ministry of Economic Affairs (MOEA) in 1937. The MOEA Department of Agriculture and Forestry (nonglinsi 農林司) was upgraded to Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (nonglinbu 農林部) in 1940.
• The Ministry of Railways was abolished in 1938, its responsibilities were taken over by the Ministry of Communications.
• The Ministry of Health was downgraded to Department of Health (weishengshu 衛生署) under the MOI in 1935, upgraded and put directly under the Executive Yuan's jurisdiction in 1936; then back under the MOI in 1938 and once more placed under the Executive Yuan in 1940.

Furthermore, a Ministry of Social Affairs (shehuibu 社會部) was established in October 1940 by transforming the former KMT Department of Social Affairs (guomindang shehuibu 國民黨中央社會部), and a Ministry of Food (liangshibu 糧食部) was set up in May 1941.

Please note that the "China Handbook 1943" and the "Chinese Year Book 1944-1945" each contained a detailled directory of agencies under the ROC central government, divided in six categories:
✿ National Government State Council (guomin zhengfu weiyuanhui 國民政府委員會),
✿ Executive Yuan (xingzhengyuan 行政院),
✿ Legislative Yuan (lifayuan 立法院),
✿ Judicial Yuan (sifayuan 司法院),
✿ Control Yuan (jianchayuan 監察院), and
✿ Examination Yuan (kaoshiyuan 考試院).

TOP   HOME    [◆ Executive Yuan history]   [Development before WWII]

ROC government agencies listed in the "China Handbook 1943"

National Government State Council:
▶ Department of Civil Affairs (wenguanchu 文官處),
▶ Department of Military Affairs (canjunchu 參軍處),
▶ Comptroller-General's Office (zhujichu主計處),
▶ Commission for the Disciplinary Punishment of Political Officials (zhengwuguan chengjie weiyuanhui 政務官懲戒委員會),
▶ National Military Council (junshi weiyuanhui 軍事委員會), and
▶ Academia Sinica (zhongyang yanjiuyuan 中央研究院);

Executive Yuan:
▶ Ministry of Interior (MOI),
▶ Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA),
▶ Ministry of Finance (MOF),
▶ Ministry of Economic Affairs (MOEA),
▶ Ministry of Communications,
▶ Ministry of Education (MOE),
▶ Commission on Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs (mengzang weiyuanhui 蒙藏委員會),
▶ Commission on Overseas Chinese Affairs (qiaowu weiyuanhui 僑務委員會),
▶ National Relief Commission (zhenji weiyuanhui 賑濟委員會),
▶ Board of Trustees for the Administration of the Indemnity Funds Remitted by the British Government (guanli Zhong Ying gengkuan dongshihui 管理中英庚款董事會), and
▶ National Commission on Aeronautical Affairs (Zhongguo hangkong jianshe xiehui 中國航空建設協會);

Legislative Yuan;

Judicial Yuan:
▶ Ministry of Justice (sifa xingzhengbu 司法行政部, abbrev. MOJ),
▶ Supreme Court (zuigao fayuan 最高法院),
▶ Administrative Court (xingzheng fayuan 行政法院), and
▶ Commission for the Disciplinary Punishment of Public Functionaries (zhongyang gongwuyuan chengjie weiyuanhui 中央公務員懲戒委員會);

Control Yuan:
▶ Ministry of Audit (shenjibu 審計部);

Examination Yuan:
▶ Ministry of Personnel (quanxubu 銓敘部), and
▶ Examination Commission (kaoxuan weiyuanhui 考選委員會).

TOP   HOME    [◆ Executive Yuan history]   [Development before WWII]

ROC government agencies listed in the "Chinese Year Book 1944-1945"

National Government State Council:
▶ Department of Civil Affairs,
▶ Department of Military Affairs,
▶ Comptroller-General's Office,
▶ Academia Sinica,
▶ Exploits Examination Commission (jixun weiyuanhui 稽勛委員會),
▶ Commission for the Disciplinary Punishment of Political Officials, and
▶ National Military Council;

Executive Yuan:
▶ Ministry of the Interior (MOI),
▶ Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA),
▶ Ministry of War,
▶ Ministry of Finance (MOF),
▶ Ministry of Economic Affairs (MOEA),
▶ Ministry of Education (MOE),
▶ Ministry of Communications,
▶ Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry,
▶ Ministry of Social Affairs,
▶ Ministry of Food,
▶ Ministry of Justice (MOJ),
▶ Commission on Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs,
▶ Overseas Affairs Commission (qiaowu weiyuanhui 僑務委員會),
▶ National Conservancy Board (shuili weiyuanhui 水利委員會),
▶ National Health Administration (weishengshu 衛生署),
▶ National Land Administration (dizhengshu 地政署),
▶ Chinese National Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (shanhou jiuji zongshu 善後救濟總署),
▶ Office of Special Commission for Mongol Banners in Chahar (Chahaer mengqi tepai yuangongshu 察哈爾蒙旗特派員公署),
▶ Suiyuan Mongolian Local Self-government Political Commission (Suiyuansheng jingnei Menggu gemengqi difang zizhi zhengwu weiyuanhui 綏遠省境內蒙古各盟旗地方自治政務委員會),
▶ Office of Special Political Commission for Mongol Banners (mengqi xuanhua shigongshu 蒙旗宣化使公署),
▶ Political Committee of the Generalissimo's Headquarters in the Northeast (junshi weiyuanhui weiyuanzhang dongbei xingying zhengzhi weiyuanhui 軍事委員會委員長東北行營政治委員會),
▶ Economic Affairs Committee of the Generalissimo's Headquarters in the Northeast (junshi weiyuanhui weiyuanzhang dongbei xingying jingji weiyuanhui 軍事委員會委員長東北行營經濟委員會),
▶ Taiwan Administration Office (Taiwan xingzheng zhangguan gongshu 台灣行政長官公署),
▶ National Publication Examination Committee (zhongyang tushu zazhi shencha weiyuanhui 中央圖書雜誌審查委員會), and
▶ Committee for the Taking-over of All China, Japanese and Puppet Enterprises in Recovered Areas (xingzhengyuan shoufuqu quanguoxing shiye jieshou weiyuanhui 行政院收復區全國性事業接收委員會);

Legislative Yuan;

Judicial Yuan:
▶ Administrative Court,
▶ Commission for the Disciplinary Punishment of Public Functionaries;

Control Yuan:
▶ Ministry of Audit;

Examination Yuan:
▶ Ministry of Personnel, and
▶ Commission of Civil Service Examinations (kaoxuan weiyuanhui 考選委員會).

TOP   HOME    [◆ Executive Yuan history]   [Development before WWII]

Unsteady years: The Chinese Civil War and its aftermath

After the long-standing conflict between the KMT-led ROC government and Communist rebels broke out again following Japan's surrender in 1945, the Executive Yuan experienced frequent changes in a relatively short time. The table below shows details on the ROC government restructuring according to information listed on the website of the ROC Executive Yuan. The date refers to the day a particular government restructuring took effect.

The most significant ROC government restructuring before the 1950s was the one which was enacted on March 21, 1949 and saw the reduction from 15 to 8 ministries:

• The Ministry of Social Affairs, Ministry of Land administration, and the Ministry of Health were integrated into the Ministry of the Interior.
• The Ministry of Food was integrated into the Ministry of Finance.
• The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Ministry of Commerce, Ministry of Water Resources and the Resources Commission were merged into the Ministry of Economic Affairs.

Other agencies like the Council of Agriculture (COA), the Central Bank, the National Palace Museum (NPM), and the Council for Economic Planning and Development (CEPD) which were established before 1949—some of them under a different name—became cabinet-level agencies at a later date.

TOP   HOME    [◆ Executive Yuan history]   [After civil war]

New cabinet-level agencies established between 1954 and 2006

Note: The square brackets around the "Ⓧ" symbol in above list indicate that the agency is still extant and has not been abolished yet.

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2012–2014 Restructuring of the Executive Yuan

A comprehensive undertaking of ROC government restructuring was started on Jan. 1, 2012 and was scheduled to be completed by Jan. 1, 2015. According to the plan, the number of cabinet-level agencies under the Executive Yuan was to be reduced from 37 to 29 (for details see tables below). A new Speaker Office under the Executive Yuan (xingzhengyuan fayanren shi 行政院發言人室) was established as well.

Behind schedule

The table below is a comparative overview showing a more detailed summary of the 2012–2014 ROC government restructuring. Contrary to the original planning, the restructuring process has not been completed yet.

TOP   HOME    [◆ Executive Yuan history]   [EY restructuring since 2012]

Timetable

The relevant law for cabinet restructuring—the Provisional Act for Adjustment of Functions and Organizations of the Executive Yuan (xingzhengyuan gongneng yewu yu zuzhi tiaozheng zhanxing tiaoli 行政院功能業務與組織調整暫行條例), promulgated on Feb. 3, 2010—was first amended on Dec. 23, 2015 to extend the effective period to allow more time for the restructuring. On Oct. 19, 2017 the Cabinet announced that it would extend the expiration date of said law from Jan. 31, 2018 to Jan. 31, 2020. Another two-year extension of that law was promulgated by presidential order on Dec. 31, 2019. On Dec. 29, 2021 the act mentioned above was renamed, amended and promulgated under the name "Act for Adjustment of Functions and Organizations of the Executive Yuan" (xingzhengyuan gongneng yewu yu zuzhi tiaozheng tiaoli 行政院功能業務與組織調整條例).

Originally, the restructuring of the ROC cabinet was supposed to be complete by Jan. 1, 2015. After the transfer of power from the KMT to the DPP following the 2016 ROC presidential election, the cabinet restructuring project was not abandoned but partially adjusted.

Since the upgrade from EPA to MOENV and the reorganizing of AEC to NSC, the cabinet structure under the ROC Executive Yuan has been consisting of 14 ministries (bu 部), 13 councils/commissions (hui 會), 2 directorate-generals (zongchu 總處), and 2 other institutions (see table below).

As for the remaining restructuring process, at the end of April 2024 the designated changes for the MOEA, MOTC and PCC have not been implemented yet and no dates had been set for related measures.

TOP   HOME    [◆ Executive Yuan history]   [EY restructuring since 2012]

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◆ A few remarks about the ROC before 1928

• The Xinhai Revolution
• The ROC central government 1912-1916
• List of ROC cabinets before Yuan Shikai's death
• ROC cabinet members before Yuan Shikai's death
• Beiyang government premiers and FMs 1916–1928

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The Xinhai Revolution

• Decline of the Qing and mounting opposition
• The Wuchang Uprising and its aftermath
• List of the most important Unequal Treaties
• Colonial powers and their possessions in China

Decline of the Qing and mounting opposition

Xinhai Revolution (xinhai geming 辛亥革命) aka Hsinhai Revolution is the term used for describing the events which brought down the Qing dynasty (1644-1911), paving the way for the establishment of the ROC. The Qing dynasty was dominated by ethnic Manchus who had swept away the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), and before the late 18^th century the rule of the Qing in China had by and large been unchallenged. But around the turn to the 19^th century Western powers—especially Great Britain—began to apply pressure aiming at opening China to trade and diplomacy. As no agreement between the Qing and the Western powers concerning rules for relations acceptable for both sides was reached, the differences soon escalated into military conflict where the Qing were confronted with their enemy's superior firepower.

Within a century Qing rule was greatly weakened. Humiliating defeats in wars like the First Opium War (diyi yapian zhanzheng 第一鴉片戰爭) 1841-1842, the Second Opium War (dier yapian zhanzheng 第二鴉片戰爭) 1856-1860, the First Sino-Japanese War (jiawu zhanzheng 甲午戰爭) 1894-1895 and others forced the Qing to make painful concessions, sign several Unequal Treaties (bu pingdeng tiaoyue 不平等條約) and allow the establishment of foreign concessions in major Chinese cities. The grip of the Qing on power slipped further as a result of major internal uprisings like the Taiping Rebellion (Taiping Tianguo 太平天國) 1850-1864 and the insurgency of the Boxers (Yihetuan 義和團) in 1900.

Under the terms of the Unequal Treaties, the Qing were forced to pay the foreign colonial powers substantial amounts of money. To pay their debts, the Qing depended on foreign loans, and collateral was offered in form of economic privileges. In this respect, railway construction played a key role, as new railways were often financed and built by foreigners, and the foreigners gradually assumed the right to exploit natural resources along the new railway routes. Widespread resentment against foreign domination in railway construction gave birth to the Railway Protection Movement (baolu yundong 保路運動) and fuelled growing nationalism and anti-Manchu sentiment. The stage was thus set for the improvised Wuchang Uprising (Wuchang qiyi 武昌起義) and the Xinhai Revolution in 1911.

In 1894 the "Revive China Society" (xing Zhong hui 興中會) was founded in Honolulu, its leader was Sun Yat-sen 孫逸仙. Sun was a native of Guangdong, a physician educated in Hong Kong and Hawaii. Around 1897 while in exile in Europe, Sun formulated the "Three Principles of the People" (sanmin zhuyi 三民主義) which represented his political philosophy and consisted of nationalism (minzu 民族), democracy (minquan 民權) and livelihood (minsheng 民生). "Nationalism" meant having a nation state and China being free of foreign control, "democracy" meant ending Manchu rule and establishing a democratic government, "livelihood" meant economic prosperity—or socialism, according to a different interpretation.

In 1903 Huang Hsing 黃興, Sung Chiao-jen 宋教仁 and ten other revolutionaries founded the "Society for the Revival of China" (Huaxinghui 華興會) in Changsha, and in 1904 the "Restoration Society" (guangfuhui 光復會) was established by Tsai Yuan-pei 蔡元培 and others in Shanghai. In 1905 the three organizations merged to become the "United League" (tongmenghui 同盟會 or Zhongguo tongmenghui 中國同盟會) in Tokyo. The goals of the United League were both radical and moderate—radical concerning the Qing as they advocated revolution and the establishment of a parliamentary democracy, but moderate concerning foreigners, because the revolutionaries were well aware that their chances for success were zero if they made enemies of foreign nations, so they pledged to abide by the treaties signed with foreign powers.

TOP   HOME   [◆ ROC before 1928]   [Xinhai revolution]

The Wuchang Uprising and its aftermath

The Xinhai Revolution itself came about, with very little planning aforehand, as the result of railway disturbances and a hasty uprising in Wuchang. It began with a decision of the Qing government to award a US consortium the right to build a railway in Hubei, Hunan, Guangdong, and Sichuan, causing a storm of nationalistic protests. In May 1911, the Qing government announced a policy of nationalizing the railroads but still had to turn to foreign creditors due to the empire's dire financial situation. In August and September, the "Sichuan Railroad Protection Society" (Sichuan baolu tongzhihui 四川保路同志會) staged demonstrations with more than 10,000 participants in Chengdu, prompting the government to dispatch elite troops from Wuchang. While a bloody crackdown occurred in Chengdu on Sept. 7, members of the cooperating revolutionary organizations "Literary Society" (wenxueshe 文學社) and "Forward Together Society" (gongjinhui 共進會) decided to use the opportunity of Wuchang being empty of troops to start a rebellion.

After coordination with Huang Hsing and Sung Chiao-jen of the United League, they set Oct. 16 as the date their revolution would begin. But on Oct. 9 a homemade explosive device in the clandestine rebel headquarter (located in the Russian concession of Hankow) accidentially detonated. In the subsequent police raids 32 revolutionaries were arrested and weapons, explosives, and important documents (including membership lists of the revolutionary organizations) were seized. The revolutionaries, who had been joined by elements of the Qing imperial army, now had no choice but to strike immediately.

On Oct. 10, 1911, the rebels seized the government munitions depot in Wuchang and attacked the office of the local governor-general. On that same day the rebels gained control of Wuchang. Two days later the neighbouring cities Hankow and Hanyang were in their hands, and by the end of October the whole of Hubei Province. A local senior military officer named Li Yuan-hung 黎元洪 who had supported the railway protection movement was persuaded to become provisional military governor of Hubei. In the following weeks most of the Chinese provinces declared their independence from the Qing government, leaving the Manchus only in control of Beijing, Zhili, Henan, and Gansu.

At the time of the Wuchang Uprising, Sun Yat-sen was in the US, but he hurried back to China by ship as soon as he heard the news. On Dec. 25 he arrived in Shanghai, and four days later delegates from the provinces which had declared their independence from the Qing gathered in Shanghai and elected Sun provisional president of the ROC, and Li Yuan-hung was elected ROC vice president. Sun traveled to Nanjing where he officially proclaimed the founding of the ROC on Jan. 1, 1912. But at that time, the Qing court was still fighting for power and not willing to give up yet.

After the first provinces defected in October 1911, the Manchus were desperate and resorted to recalling General Yuan Shikai 袁世凱, making him prime minister (zongli dachen 總理大臣) on Nov. 1. The troops of the modern Beiyang Army (beiyang lujun 北洋陸軍) were personally loyal to Yuan, and the Qing relied on them to turn the tide. On the other hand, the revolutionaries needed Yuan as well because they were not strong enough to overthrow the Qing or force their abdication, so the goals of the revolution could not be reached without Yuan's assistance. Sun Yat-sen and Huang Hsing agreed that Yuan was the only hope to prevent a civil war. Wooed by both sides, Yuan for his part saw the events as an opportunity to seize power for himself, and the revolutionaries, who had already accomplished quite a lot, were the right tool to get rid of the Qing. The revolutionaries offered Yuan the ROC presidency if he achieved the abdication of the Qing emperor. After the provisional ROC government was set up, Yuan declared to the Qing court that the monarchy could no longer be defended, and on Feb. 12, 1912 the Qing finally issued an edict renouncing the throne of China. Sun Yat-sen resigned two days later, and Yuan Shikai became ROC president on Feb. 15, 1912, retaining Li Yuan-hung as vice president. Although Yuan sabotaged the development of democracy and strived to make himself emperor (see details in the next subchapter), his importance for preserving China's unity became evident after his death in 1916 when China quickly disintegrated into the chaos of the warlord period.

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List of the most important Unequal Treaties

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Colonial powers and their possessions in China

A detailed summary of the history of imperial China can be found here.

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The ROC central government 1912-1916

• After the revolution
• Monarchy dismantled
• Troubled young republic
• Failed restoration of monarchy

After the revolution

In retrospective, the political system and government structure of the ROC before 1928 are of limited significance for today's ROC because the current system with the Five Yuan did not exist before that year. The main periods before 1928 are the era Yuan Shikai (1912-1916) and the Warlord period (1916-1928). The following paragraphs focus on the era of Yuan Shikai's presidency because in the Warlord period there was no undisputed ROC central government—the political order had dissolved after Yuan Shikai's death in June 1916, leading to a period of division dominated by local warlords (junfa 軍伐). National unity was restored only with the defeat of the warlords by Chiang Kai-shek in July 1928.

Key figures in the development of events in late 1911 and early 1912 were Sun Yat-sen 孫逸仙 (1866-1925) and Yuan Shikai 袁世凱 (1859-1916). Sun is being revered as the father of the nation to this day, and indeed he had dedicated his life to overthrow the Qing, while his vision for a post-Qing state found its expression in the Three Principles of the People (sanmin zhuyi 三民主義). Yuan on the other hand was not a visionary, but he was regarded instrumental in persuading the Qing to relinquish rule over China and prevent a civil war. Yuan cooperated with the revolutionaries with the goal to promote his own rise to the top and eventually make himself emperor. Sun agreed to step aside and accept Yuan as ROC president in 1912 because at the time he believed this was the best way to preserve the young republic.

In the wake of the 1911 Hsinhai Revolution, the Qing court witnessed the rapid erosion of its power as one province after another declared itself independent. The revolutionaries proclaimed the founding of the Republic of China on Jan. 1, 1912 in Nanjing with Sun Yat-sen as provisional president (linshi da zongtong 臨時大總統). A Provisional Senate (linshi canyiyuan 臨時參議院) was established there on Jan. 28 that year. The first cabinet assembled by the revolutionaries included the following agencies, each headed by a minister (zongzhang 總長): Ministry of War (lujunbu 陸軍部) aka Ministry of the Army, Ministry of the Navy (haijunbu 海軍部), Ministry of Internal Affairs (neiwubu 內務部), Ministry of Foreign Affairs (waijiaobu 外交部), Ministry of the Judiciary (sifabu 司法部), Ministry of Education (jiaoyubu 教育部), Ministry of Finance (caizhengbu 財政部), Ministry of Communications (jiaotongbu 交通部), Ministry of Commerce (shiyebu 實業部), and there was also the position of Chief of Staff (canmou benbu 參謀本部).

The Qing government structure should briefly be mentioned here for comparison. While in Imperial China the emperor (huangdi 皇帝) was generally the absolute ruler, a core government institution in the second half of the Qing Dynasty was the Grand Council (junjichu 軍機處), formally established in 1732 as a major policy-making body. Besides this, there were six ministries—Board of Civil Appointments (libu 吏部), Board of Finance (hubu 戶部), Board of Rites (libu 禮部), Board of War (bingbu 兵部), Board of Punishments (xingbu 刑部), and Board of Works (gongbu 工部). An agency especially tasked with handling foreign affairs was the "Zongli Yamen" (總理衙門), established on March 11, 1861.

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Monarchy dismantled

After the Qing court bowed to the pressure and abdicated on Feb. 12, 1912, Sun Yat-sen stepped aside the following day, and the Provisional Senate elected Yuan Shikai president on Feb. 15. A provisional constitution (Zhonghua minguo linshi yuefa 中華民國臨時約法) was promulgated on March 11. Two days later a new cabinet headed by Tang Shao-yi 唐紹儀 was appointed. (The successive cabinets under Yuan's leadership and their members are listed below.)

The revolutionaries had designed Nanjing to be the nation's new capital, but after Yuan had refused to leave his power base Beijing, the Provisional Senate resolved to move the seat of the government from Nanjing to Beijing on April 5, 1912.

According to the provisional constitution, a parliament was to be elected within six months of the formation of the government, and on Aug. 10, 1912 the Provisional Senate promulgated relevant election laws for a bicameral system comprising a Senate (canyiyuan 參議院) and a House of Representatives (zhongyiyuan 眾議院). Elections took place from December 1912 to January 1913, eligible voters were adult males over the age of 21 who were educated or owned property and paid taxes and who could prove two-year residency in a particular county. China's population at that time stood at ca. 406.8 million persons, the number of votes cast was 42,933,992—about 10.5 percent of the total population.

An addition to the KMT, three major parties fielded candidates in the elections:

• Republican Party (gonghedang 共和黨): established on May 9, 1912,
• Unity Party (tongyidang 統一黨): established on Jan. 30, 1912, and
• Democratic Party (minzhudang 民主黨): established on Aug. 27, 1912.

On April 6, 1913 the Provisional Senate was dissolved, and the newly elected Congress (guohui 國會) composed of the Senate with 274 seats and the House with 596 seats convened on April 8 that year. The table below shows the distribution of seats in the Congress, the figures in brackets refer to the respective seat percentage.

The Republican Party, the Unity Party and the Democratic Party merged to the Progressive Party (jinbudang 進步黨) on May 29, 1913, but when Yuan Shikai pronounced himself emperor and outlawed all political parties, the Progressive Party was dissolved, and some of its leaders, including Liang Chi-chao 梁啟超 (1873-1929), participated in the campaign of the National Protection Army (huguojun 護國軍) against Yuan in late 1915.

The young KMT heavyweight Sung Chiao-jen 宋教仁 had played a major role in his party's election victory and was widely regarded as a prime candidate for the position of premier. After he had shown indications of a desire to limit Yuan's powers within the new government, he was shot by assassins on March 20, 1913 and died two days later. Subsequent investigations implicated premier Chao Ping-chun 趙秉鈞 and possibly Yuan Shikai himself.

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Troubled young republic

Open resistance against Yuan's increasingly dictatorial rule broke out on July 12, 1913 in Jiangxi, events which were later called "Second Revolution" (erci geming 二次革命), but Yuan had little trouble crushing the poorly equipped movement. In the aftermath Huang Xing 黃興 (1874-1916), one of the leading forces of the rebellion, fled to Japan, as did Sun Yat-sen in August 1913.

The process of presidential election was set in motion by the Congress on Oct. 6, 1913. Yuan Shikai was elected in the third ballot, and on Oct. 10 he was formally inaugurated as president—the provisional government of the ROC then became the regular government.

On Oct. 31, 1913 the Congress promulgated the "Tiantan Constitution draft" (tiantan xianfa caoan 天壇憲法草案) which adopted a cabinet rather than a presidential system in order to check Yuan's powers. Yuan retaliated by dissolving the KMT on Nov. 4 and revoking the credentials of 358 of its parlamentarians on the pretext of their involvement in the Second Revolution. After that the Congress lacked a legal quorum, and Yuan disbanded it on Jan. 10, 1914.

Yuan went on to call a National Conference (guomin dahui 國民大會) on March 18, 1914 to revise the 1912 provisional constitution. On May 1, 1914 the provisional constitution was annulled, and the Constitutional Compact (Zhonghua minguo yuefa 中華民國約法) was promulgated instead. It extended the presidential term to 10 years, renewable by re-election without limit, and giving the president the right to name his own successor.

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Failed restoration of monarchy

On Aug. 21, 1915 a Peace-Planning Society (chouanhui 籌安會) was organized to draft Yuan for emperor, and after a National People's Representative Assembly (guomin daibiao dahui 國民代表大會) had approved monarchy on Nov. 20, 1915, Yuan Shikai 'agreed' to become emperor of the "Empire of China" (Zhonghua diguo 中華帝國) on Dec. 12, 1915, taking the era name "Hongxian" 洪憲.

At that time, mounting opposition and resistance forced Yuan to postpone the accession rites. A National Protection Army in Yunnan issued an ultimatum to Yuan on Dec. 23, 1915 to cancel the monarchist movement, which Yuan refused. Yunnan then declared independence on Dec. 25, 1915, and the National Protection Army launched a military campaign. Guangxi also declared independence on March 15, 1916. Meanwhile, domestic and international support for Yuan had dwindled—Tuan Chi-jui 段祺瑞 and Feng Kuo-chang 馮國璋 (1859-1919) both declined appointments as commander of the campaign against the National Protection Army on pretext of illness; Japan announced Yuan's administration had forfeited its right to represent China, and Japan would henceforth treat the north and the south as equal belligerent parties. Yuan was eventually forced to abolish monarchy on March 22, 1916, but nonetheless more provinces declared independence: Guangdong on April 6, Zhejiang on April 12, Shaanxi on May 9, Sichuan on May 22, and Hunan on May 27. On June 6, 1916, Yuan Shikai died, leaving the ROC in shambles and divided.

The following lists show the ROC cabinets and their members during Yuan Shikai's presidency.

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List of ROC cabinets before Yuan Shikai's death

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ROC cabinet members before Yuan Shikai's death

• Premiers (guowu zongli 國務總理)
• Ministers of Interior (neiwu zongzhang 內務總長)
• Ministers of Finance (caizheng zongzhang 財政總長)
• Foreign Ministers (waijiao zongzhang 外交總長)
• Ministers of War (lujun zongzhang 陸軍總長)
• Ministers of Navy (haijun zongzhang 海軍總長)
• Ministers of Justice (sifa zongzhang 司法總長)
• Ministers of Education (jiaoyu zongzhang 教育總長)
• Ministers of Communications (jiaotong zongzhang 交通總長)
• Ministers of Commerce (gongshang zongzhang 工商總長)
• Ministers of Agriculture and Forestry (nonglin zongzhang 農林總長)

Premiers

Note: On May 1, 1914 the title of "premier" in Chinese was changed to guowuqing 國務卿.

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Ministers of Interior

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Ministers of Finance

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Foreign Ministers

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Ministers of War

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Ministers of Navy

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Ministers of Justice

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Ministers of Education

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Ministers of Communications

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Ministers of Commerce

Note: On March 22, 1914 the Ministry of Commerce was merged with the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, the head of the new agency used the title "Minister of Agriculture and Commerce" (nongshang zongzhang農商總長).

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Ministers of Agriculture and Forestry

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Beiyang government premiers and FMs 1916–1928

• Beiyang government premiers 1916–1928
• Beiyang government FMs 1916–1928

Between Yuan Shikai's death in June 1916 and the successful conclusion of the Northern Expedition (beifa zhanzheng 北伐戰爭) in July 1928, the government based in Beijing—also referred to as Beiyang government (beiyang zhengfu 北洋政府)—lost control over most of the former ROC territory, but it was still recognized internationally als legitimate representative of China.

The following list shows the premiers (guowu zongli 國務總理) and foreign ministers (waijiao zongzhang 外交總長) of the Beiyang government only, its other cabinet members as well as the governments based in Canton are omitted here. For a lists of presidents in that period click here.

The national flag used by the Beiyang government was the five-coloured flag which had also been the ROC national flag since 1912. The symbol used by the Beiyang Army was the Beiyang Star.

Beiyang government premiers 1916–1928

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Beiyang government FMs 1916–1928

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